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Available online 29 April 2026

Consensus statement on the definition, diagnostic criteria, and treatment of refractory septic shock using a Delphi methodology

Declaración de consenso sobre la definición, criterios diagnósticos y tratamiento de shock séptico refractario utilizando una metodología Delphi
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David Andaluz-Ojedaa,b,
Corresponding author
dandaluz@saludcastillayleon.es

Corresponding author.
, Ricard Ferrerc,d, José Garnacho-Monteroe, Emilio Maseda-Garridof,g, Ana Ochagavíah
a Servicio de Medicina Intensiva, Complejo Asistencial Universitario de Palencia, Palencia, Spain
b Grupo de Investigación Biomédica en Cuidados Críticos (BIOCRITIC), Universidad de Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain
c Servicio de Medicina Intensiva, Hospital Vall d’Hebron; Grupo de Investigación SODIR, Vall d’Hebron Institut Recerca (VHIR), Barcelona, Spain
d Departamento de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
e Unidad Clínica de Cuidados Intensivos, Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío, Seville, Spain
f Servicio de Anestesiología y Reanimación, Hospital Quirónsalud Valle del Henares, Torrejón de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain
g Departamento de Farmacología y Toxicología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
h Servicio de Medicina Interna Intensiva, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
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Abstract

Refractory septic shock is a critical condition within the spectrum of sepsis, characterized by an inadequate response to standard hemodynamic resuscitation. In the absence of a consensus operational definition, a consensus study was conducted using the Delphi methodology. Thirty experts in sepsis and hemodynamics participated. Statements related to the definition, diagnostic criteria, and therapy strategies for RSS were evaluated. Consensus was reached on 23 of 28 statements, allowing RSS to be defined as a clinical entity characterized by persistent hypotension and signs of global hypoperfusion for more than one hour, despite optimized initial treatment. Consensus was reached on the use of hydrocortisone, the inclusion of elevated lactate as a marker of hypoperfusion, the utility of advanced hemodynamic monitoring and echocardiography, and general recommendations on the use of combined vasopressors were evaluated. This study lays the groundwork for future research and clinical algorithms.

Keywords:
Refractory septic shock
Sepsis
Delphi
Vasopressor agents
Hydrocortisone
Lactic acid
Echocardiography
Critical care
Resumen

El shock séptico refractario (SSR) es una afección crítica dentro del espectro de la sepsis, caracterizada por una respuesta insuficiente a la reanimación hemodinámica estándar. Ante la falta de una definición operativa consensuada, se realizó un estudio de consenso utilizando metodología Delphi. Participaron 30 expertos en sepsis y hemodinámica. Se evaluaron afirmaciones relacionadas con definición, criterios diagnósticos y estrategias de tratamiento del SSR. Se alcanzó consenso en 23 de 28 afirmaciones, permitiendo definir el SSR como una entidad clínica caracterizada por hipotensión persistente y signos de hipoperfusión durante más de una hora, a pesar de un tratamiento inicial optimizado. Se consensuó el uso de hidrocortisona, la inclusión de lactato elevado como marcador de hipoperfusión, la utilidad de la monitorización hemodinámica avanzada y la ecocardiografía y se valoraron recomendaciones generales sobre el uso de vasopresores combinados. Este estudio sienta las bases para futuras investigaciones y algoritmos clínicos.

Palabras clave:
Shock séptico refractario
Sepsis
Delphi
Agentes vasopresores
Hidrocortisona
Ácido láctico
Ecocardiografía
Cuidados intensivos

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